ABSTRACT
Water resources development should be managed effectively for a sustainable regional development. Changing in management from fragmented to an integrated approach is recommended as a necessary undertaking. Changes will likely be wide-ranging, include institutions and policies at national, states, and river basin level, technology and infrastructure, and financial mechanisms. The areas requiring change, amongst others include: The role of the state in water resources development, management and use; Systems to reconciling water quantity and quality needs of all water users; and institutional reform and development to improve the effectiveness of management agencies. These changes in management required a capacity development at national level down to the river basin level. River basin has to be treated as a unit that should be consider for every development and management activities. Certain principles should be adopted, and the right instruments should be carefully selected in reaching the above objectives. This paper discussed all the requirements and exposed Indonesian cases that can be used as the learning examples, and at the same time come up with its recommendations that would allow the integrated approach to be applied.
PRINCIPLES OF INTEGRATED WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT
Integrated water resources management (IWRM) is an approach towards an end, rather than an end in itself. An IWRM approach seeks to address a country’s key water-related development problems—water for health, for food, for energy, for environment—more effectively and efficiently than is possible using traditional (fragmented) approaches. It seeks to avoid the lives lost, the money wasted, and the natural capital depleted because of fragmented decision making about developing and managing water resources that did not take into account the larger ramifications of sectoral actions. It aims to ensure that current demands for water are met without jeopardizing the ability of future generations to meet theirs. Overall, it seeks to advance a country’s social and economic development goals in ways that do not compromise the sustainability of vital ecosystems.
The four guiding principles as stated in the 1992 Dublin Statement and Conference Report for a holistic, comprehensive, multidiciplinary approach to water resources problems world wide are as follows:
- Fresh water is a finite and vulneral resources, essential to sustain life, development, and the environment
- Water development and management should be based on a participatory approach, involving users, planners, and policy makers at all levels
- Women play a central part in the provision, management, and safe guarding of water
- Water has an economic value in all its competing uses and should be recognised as an economic good
The best approach for implementing IWRM is through applying river basin as a geographical or physical unit of water resources assessment. Hence, the country should apply the Basin Water Resources Management Plan for every river basins within its jurisdiction. IWRM as adopted from Global Water Partnership is “The process of coordinating conservation, management and development of water, land and related resources in order to maximize the economic and social benefits in an equitable manner without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems "[1]
CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT FOR MANAGING CHANGES IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT
Managing changes from fragmented approach to an integrated approach as guiding by the above four principles is a paramount undertaking that a country should anticipated. These changes in management required a capacity development at national level down to the river basin level. There are a range of definitions, both of capacity and capacity development. One of the simplest and most effective definitions of capacity comes from UNDP that capacity is the ability of individuals and organizations to perform functions effectively, efficiently and sustainable. Capacity is thus seen as the ability to do the right things in the right way and for the long term. The focus is not just on capacity to perform day to day tasks (the core functions) but also to look to the future, taking a strategic view of goals and overall objectives, and how these might change over time. Originally termed "capacity building", the prefer term for this process has now change to "capacity development", which reflects a change in approach from external actions and physical activities to internal process of growing and evolving, which is more in keeping with contemporary trends and approaches. The framework for capacity development, as confirmed from the earlier work of ICID (International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage), suggests capacity development needs to be addressed at four domains:
• Enabling environment;
• Organisations;
• Individuals; and
• Knowledge Management
The fourth one was added as recent ICID's work has suggested a cross cutting theme of Knowledge Management to three domains of previous capacity building activities, see Figure 1 [2]
At the river basin level, the capacity development initiatives for managing changes should be able to create a Basin Water Institution/Organization, and produced Basin Water Resources Management Plan that accommodate the interest of all stakeholders. Furthermore, as the conditions of river basins within a country are varied, benchmarking is recommended for further development of a river basin.
Figure 1 Domain of capacity development
Source [2]
INDONESIAN EXPERIENCED TOWARDS IWRM
Multipurpose Dam as an early development of Integrated Approach
Managing changes from fragmented approach to an integrated approach as guiding by the above four principles is a paramount undertaking that a country should anticipated. These changes in management required a capacity development at national level down to the river basin level. There are a range of definitions, both of capacity and capacity development. One of the simplest and most effective definitions of capacity comes from UNDP that capacity is the ability of individuals and organizations to perform functions effectively, efficiently and sustainable. Capacity is thus seen as the ability to do the right things in the right way and for the long term. The focus is not just on capacity to perform day to day tasks (the core functions) but also to look to the future, taking a strategic view of goals and overall objectives, and how these might change over time. Originally termed "capacity building", the prefer term for this process has now change to "capacity development", which reflects a change in approach from external actions and physical activities to internal process of growing and evolving, which is more in keeping with contemporary trends and approaches. The framework for capacity development, as confirmed from the earlier work of ICID (International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage), suggests capacity development needs to be addressed at four domains:
• Enabling environment;
• Organisations;
• Individuals; and
• Knowledge Management
The fourth one was added as recent ICID's work has suggested a cross cutting theme of Knowledge Management to three domains of previous capacity building activities, see Figure 1 [2]
At the river basin level, the capacity development initiatives for managing changes should be able to create a Basin Water Institution/Organization, and produced Basin Water Resources Management Plan that accommodate the interest of all stakeholders. Furthermore, as the conditions of river basins within a country are varied, benchmarking is recommended for further development of a river basin.
Figure 1 Domain of capacity development
Source [2]
INDONESIAN EXPERIENCED TOWARDS IWRM
Multipurpose Dam as an early development of Integrated Approach
In a country like Indonesia, where the climate is affected by seasonal monsoon with two distinguished dry and wet seasons, the need for resevoirs is obvious. This requirements for reservoirs bring the modern technology in water resources development into Indonesia by the construction of the Jatiluhur multipurpose dam. Although the study had been carried out during the Dutch colonial time, this first dam construction in Indonesia were done by the French and Indonesian engineers in the late 1950s, and has been in operation since 1967. The Jatiluhur multipurpose dam is for hydropower, irrigation, and domestic water supply. The irrigation area is located in the downstream area of several river basins in northern part of Java island from the Cipunegara river in the east to the Bekasi River in west. The domestic water supply is for Jakarta city and its surrounding areas.
Even though it is not fulfilling all the Dublin principles, the Jatiluhur dam construction, to some extend was the first and early developement of an integrated approach in the river basin development in Indonesia.
In Java island, the most densely populated in Indonesia, where more than half of Indonesian population live, more reservoirs are needed for supplying water in the dry season.
In 1959, the overall Brantas River Basin Development Plan in East Java were proposed, and a series of 6 (six) multipurpose Dams and 1 (one) dam for hydropower generation were built in the early 1960s until early 1990s. Multipurpose Dams were also built in South Kedu River Basin, Solo River Basin, and Jratunseluna River Basin.
River Basin as a unit for IWRM
Recognizing the important of one river basin one plan for an integrated approach, the whole Indonesia were divided into 90 river basins through a Ministery Regulation from Department of Public Works (Peraturan Menteri Pekerjaan Umum) No.48/PRT/1990 tentang PSDA (Pengembangan Sumber Daya Air or in English "Water Resources Development"). The 90 river basins are shown in Figure below.
This is a move towards water resources management of the whole country through river basin as a physical unit of water resources development and management.
The river basins in Indonesia can be categories into 3 groups:
- River basins in big islands like: Sumatera, Jawa, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, and Irian Jaya
- River basins in medium islands like: Bali, West Nusatenggara Islands, East Nusatenggara Islands, and Maluku islands
- River basins in small islands, i.e. the rest of Indonesian's islands which are not included in both Big and Medium islands.
Furher to the above categories, and take into account the socio-economic conditions, intensity of water resources development, and also the conjunctive use of groundwater and surface water; at some places, the whole island should be treated as a unit for its water resources development. The examples to this conditions are Java, Bali, Lombok, and some small islands like Ambon island, and Rote island.
Variation in River basin characteristics in Indonesia and its current status of development
Capacity development initiatives for water resources sector reform towards IWRM
In response to the problems in water resources development and management in the early 1990s, the government began the policy, strategy, and institutional reforms in multi-sector water resources planning, development, and management. The key government initiatives for this water resources sector reforms were put into capacity development activities, which were designed to include [5]:
(i) The elevation of water resources from a sub-sector to a sector;
(ii) the restructuring of Directorate General of Water Resources Development (DGWRD) to make it more responsive to the needs of water stakeholders in the provinces and river basins;
(iii) The proclamation of DGWRD’s new Policy and Strategy on Water Resources Development, which clearly defined its commitment to integrate river basin development and management;
(iv) The decentralization of management, administrative, and functional activities in the water resources sector to provinces, districts, and river basin organizations;
(v) The establishment and strengthening of multisectoral water resources management committees in the provinces and river basins;
(vi) The implementation of the Clean Rivers Program of the National Environmental Agency, and DGWRD’s pilot water quality monitoring projects; and
(vii) The launching of DGWRD’s programs for efficient irrigation system operation and maintenance, improved water management, beneficiary participation, and public-private partnership in the water sector.
Currently, DGWRD has been changed into Directorate General of Water Resources
In 1997, the monetary crisis that hit many Asian countries and particularly Indonesia induced some set backs on the capacity development activities. A review of the various components and elements delayed and had to reschedule remaining activities. The monetary crisis, however, accelerated the discussions and the actions on the implementation of the decentralization process of central government tasks and responsibilities to the regions. Since then, the government’s institutional reforms have been aiming for sustainable development and an effective, efficient, and accountable government. The main objective has been set for changing the government from “provider” of goods and services to “enabler” the community to mobilize its own capacity for solving problems. For example is to increase the role of the community in development and operation of irrigation schemes. The second objective has been set for decentralizing the Government decisions and finances to provinces and districts (kabupatens), which enacted in two laws (UU 22 and 25) in 1999.
In the year 2004, the reforms and capacity development activities produced the new Law of Water Resources (UU 7/2004), which was endorsed by the parliament (DPR) on February 19, 2004, to replace the UU 11/1974 [6]. The new water resources law is consistent with IWRM principles, and hence provides a legal environment that enabling the process of integrating water resources development and management activities. It creates an environment for non-government organizations, business, individual citizen, and communities to participate in the process of planning and implementation of water resources management. Along with its social function, the economic function of water also have its place in the law, as all users are to bear the cost of water resources management services. Exception is given to those, whose water use is considered a basic need (e.g. farmers with holding up to 2 ha irrigation field).
In the organisation domain of capacity development, the new law stipulates the need for water resources councils, whose main tasks are to prepare and formulate water resources management policy and strategies. The councils as coordinating institutions are to have members that consist of government elements and non-government elements. Non-government representatives would include experts in the field of water resources, water user community organizations, self-supporting water resources community organizations, and professional association in the field of water resources.
At provincial levels, coordination is to be carried out by water resources councils established by Provincial Government. A water resources council or other coordination facility may be established by the District/Municipality to implement the coordination at district/town level. At basin level, a basin water resources council or other coordination facility can be established according to the need of the related water resources area management. The working relations between water resources councils or coordination facility at national level, provincial level, district/town level and river basin level are consultative and coordinative in nature.
Ensuring that IWRM will be conducted properly, each river basin should have a Basin Policy or Strategy (Pola) reflecting the development and management views of all basin stakeholders through a public consultation process. The government responsible for River Basin Management in given basins must determine a Basin Water Resources Management Plan (BWRMP) for the river basins under their responsibility. The BWRMP must be based on the water resources policy and should express all basic principles of the UU 7/2004. A BWRMP for every river basin is to be broken down into development and management programs related to water resources management by government agencies, private sectors, and the community. The community has the right to express their objections to the draft of a BWRMP and the draft should be revised to take into account community and stakeholder objections.
A Master Plan of Water Resources Management represents long term (15-25 year) plan, which contains main points of a program for water resources conservation and utilization, as well as control of water damaging power, has to be carried out in an integrated manner. It is to be reviewed and evaluated every five years and, before the draft or later changes are decreed, public consultation must be carried out according to standard procedures. A Master Plan of Water Resources Management which has been decreed is to be included as part of a strategic plan of every related sector and as one of the elements in the preparation, review and or improvement of the related regional spatial plan.
The activities at individual domain of capacity development are required to increase the ability of local stakeholders, legislators, and politicians because they are now involve in the decision making process for an integrated water resources management, as mentioned above. This element of capacity development is concerned with developing the knowledge, understanding, skills, and abilities of individuals to perform their roles within their given organizational structure. In this case, the capacity development is required in civil society awareness, performance or accountability, and better governance in the water sector. On the other hand, professionals at Ministry of Public Works would require retraining and retooling to better deal with their new challenges. This is due to the centralized functions and budgetary responsibilities of water resources development and management, which are traditionally under the Ministry of Public Works, now shifting to kabupatens and provinces. Further more, in an integrated approach, in addition to the main water institutions, mandates and tasks of other line agencies of the government and ministries (e.g., Environment, Agriculture, Forestry and Home Affairs) should be coordinated with those in the water sector. This will require a comprehensive capacity development program, where capacities of individual continue to be important.
Competency and task oriented training, the development of local training capacity and adaptation of formal and informal educational programs in local institutes and universities are key actions to accommodate the short, medium and long-term needs of the water sector agencies. The modernity and strength of the local educational and training systems are strategic instruments in the future development of the public sector. Universities, Research and Study Centres, and other Knowledge Centres (Capacity Builders) as national human resources development instrument have a strategic role to play. At the moment, most of the capacity builders are still following supply-oriented instead of demand-oriented practices in knowledge transfer. In addition, integration and cross sectoral concepts, strategic thinking skills, although not new, are still not systematically included in the national curricula.
Taking the strategic role of capacity builders in nation capacity development into consideration, it is obvious that the key is strengthening the capacities of capacity builders: Capacity development of the Capacity Builders. Development in Information and Communication Technology introduces new ways of collaboration through the Internet at national and international level. It is believed that creating and nurturing a dynamic network of capacity builders is the first essential step towards a sustainable mechanism of knowledge management, that comprise of knowledge generation, sharing and dissemination throughout the nation.
In June 2005, a Collaborative Knowledge Network consisting of national Capacity Builders has been formally set up as initial part of continuing capacity development process, where the members can collaborate to support and provide future capacity building interventions in the regions. In this way, it is allowing the knowledge and capacities to be decentralized to the regions, through participation of regional capacity builders in a sustainable and dynamic way. It was agreed to name the new network Collaborative Knowledge Network Indonesia or CKNet-INA. The first members of CKNet-INA are [7]:
Sumatra: Andalas University (UNAND) - Padang
Jakarta: University of Indonesia (UI) - Jakarta
University Bina Nusantara (BINUS) - Jakarta
West Java: Bandung Institute of Technology (ITB) - Bandung
Parahyangan Catholic University (UNPAR) - Bandung
Central Java: Diponegoro University (UNDIP) - Semarang
Yogyakarta: Gajah Mada University (UGM) - Yogyakarta
East Java: Institute of Technology Sepuluh Nopember (ITS) - Surabaya
Merdeka University (UNMER) - Malang
South Sulawesi: Hasanuddin University (UNHAS) – Makassar
As there are many approaches that has been experienced and observed, both within public and private organizations, about how to handle a knowledge network, the CKNet INA development are going to be reviewed from time to time in the following aspects [8]:
• addressing knowledge needs;
• delivering results; and
• managing the network process.
It is shown above that in Indonesia since early 1990s, the water resources sector reforms has continuously been implemented, through capacity development initiatives, which eventually addressing the four domains of enabling environment, organizations, individuals, and cross cutting knowledge management. In Indonesia the water resources capacity development program is known as Water Sector Adjustment Program (WASAP), and it is consistent with principles of integrated water resources management.
Implementation of Basin Water Resources Development and Management
The river basins in Indonesia can be categories into 3 groups:
In response to the problems in water resources development and management in the early 1990s, the government began the policy, strategy, and institutional reforms in multi-sector water resources planning, development, and management. The key government initiatives for this water resources sector reforms were put into capacity development activities, which were designed to include [5]:
(i) The elevation of water resources from a sub-sector to a sector;
(ii) the restructuring of Directorate General of Water Resources Development (DGWRD) to make it more responsive to the needs of water stakeholders in the provinces and river basins;
(iii) The proclamation of DGWRD’s new Policy and Strategy on Water Resources Development, which clearly defined its commitment to integrate river basin development and management;
(iv) The decentralization of management, administrative, and functional activities in the water resources sector to provinces, districts, and river basin organizations;
(v) The establishment and strengthening of multisectoral water resources management committees in the provinces and river basins;
(vi) The implementation of the Clean Rivers Program of the National Environmental Agency, and DGWRD’s pilot water quality monitoring projects; and
(vii) The launching of DGWRD’s programs for efficient irrigation system operation and maintenance, improved water management, beneficiary participation, and public-private partnership in the water sector.
Currently, DGWRD has been changed into Directorate General of Water Resources
In 1997, the monetary crisis that hit many Asian countries and particularly Indonesia induced some set backs on the capacity development activities. A review of the various components and elements delayed and had to reschedule remaining activities. The monetary crisis, however, accelerated the discussions and the actions on the implementation of the decentralization process of central government tasks and responsibilities to the regions. Since then, the government’s institutional reforms have been aiming for sustainable development and an effective, efficient, and accountable government. The main objective has been set for changing the government from “provider” of goods and services to “enabler” the community to mobilize its own capacity for solving problems. For example is to increase the role of the community in development and operation of irrigation schemes. The second objective has been set for decentralizing the Government decisions and finances to provinces and districts (kabupatens), which enacted in two laws (UU 22 and 25) in 1999.
In the year 2004, the reforms and capacity development activities produced the new Law of Water Resources (UU 7/2004), which was endorsed by the parliament (DPR) on February 19, 2004, to replace the UU 11/1974 [6]. The new water resources law is consistent with IWRM principles, and hence provides a legal environment that enabling the process of integrating water resources development and management activities. It creates an environment for non-government organizations, business, individual citizen, and communities to participate in the process of planning and implementation of water resources management. Along with its social function, the economic function of water also have its place in the law, as all users are to bear the cost of water resources management services. Exception is given to those, whose water use is considered a basic need (e.g. farmers with holding up to 2 ha irrigation field).
In the organisation domain of capacity development, the new law stipulates the need for water resources councils, whose main tasks are to prepare and formulate water resources management policy and strategies. The councils as coordinating institutions are to have members that consist of government elements and non-government elements. Non-government representatives would include experts in the field of water resources, water user community organizations, self-supporting water resources community organizations, and professional association in the field of water resources.
At provincial levels, coordination is to be carried out by water resources councils established by Provincial Government. A water resources council or other coordination facility may be established by the District/Municipality to implement the coordination at district/town level. At basin level, a basin water resources council or other coordination facility can be established according to the need of the related water resources area management. The working relations between water resources councils or coordination facility at national level, provincial level, district/town level and river basin level are consultative and coordinative in nature.
Ensuring that IWRM will be conducted properly, each river basin should have a Basin Policy or Strategy (Pola) reflecting the development and management views of all basin stakeholders through a public consultation process. The government responsible for River Basin Management in given basins must determine a Basin Water Resources Management Plan (BWRMP) for the river basins under their responsibility. The BWRMP must be based on the water resources policy and should express all basic principles of the UU 7/2004. A BWRMP for every river basin is to be broken down into development and management programs related to water resources management by government agencies, private sectors, and the community. The community has the right to express their objections to the draft of a BWRMP and the draft should be revised to take into account community and stakeholder objections.
A Master Plan of Water Resources Management represents long term (15-25 year) plan, which contains main points of a program for water resources conservation and utilization, as well as control of water damaging power, has to be carried out in an integrated manner. It is to be reviewed and evaluated every five years and, before the draft or later changes are decreed, public consultation must be carried out according to standard procedures. A Master Plan of Water Resources Management which has been decreed is to be included as part of a strategic plan of every related sector and as one of the elements in the preparation, review and or improvement of the related regional spatial plan.
The activities at individual domain of capacity development are required to increase the ability of local stakeholders, legislators, and politicians because they are now involve in the decision making process for an integrated water resources management, as mentioned above. This element of capacity development is concerned with developing the knowledge, understanding, skills, and abilities of individuals to perform their roles within their given organizational structure. In this case, the capacity development is required in civil society awareness, performance or accountability, and better governance in the water sector. On the other hand, professionals at Ministry of Public Works would require retraining and retooling to better deal with their new challenges. This is due to the centralized functions and budgetary responsibilities of water resources development and management, which are traditionally under the Ministry of Public Works, now shifting to kabupatens and provinces. Further more, in an integrated approach, in addition to the main water institutions, mandates and tasks of other line agencies of the government and ministries (e.g., Environment, Agriculture, Forestry and Home Affairs) should be coordinated with those in the water sector. This will require a comprehensive capacity development program, where capacities of individual continue to be important.
Competency and task oriented training, the development of local training capacity and adaptation of formal and informal educational programs in local institutes and universities are key actions to accommodate the short, medium and long-term needs of the water sector agencies. The modernity and strength of the local educational and training systems are strategic instruments in the future development of the public sector. Universities, Research and Study Centres, and other Knowledge Centres (Capacity Builders) as national human resources development instrument have a strategic role to play. At the moment, most of the capacity builders are still following supply-oriented instead of demand-oriented practices in knowledge transfer. In addition, integration and cross sectoral concepts, strategic thinking skills, although not new, are still not systematically included in the national curricula.
Taking the strategic role of capacity builders in nation capacity development into consideration, it is obvious that the key is strengthening the capacities of capacity builders: Capacity development of the Capacity Builders. Development in Information and Communication Technology introduces new ways of collaboration through the Internet at national and international level. It is believed that creating and nurturing a dynamic network of capacity builders is the first essential step towards a sustainable mechanism of knowledge management, that comprise of knowledge generation, sharing and dissemination throughout the nation.
In June 2005, a Collaborative Knowledge Network consisting of national Capacity Builders has been formally set up as initial part of continuing capacity development process, where the members can collaborate to support and provide future capacity building interventions in the regions. In this way, it is allowing the knowledge and capacities to be decentralized to the regions, through participation of regional capacity builders in a sustainable and dynamic way. It was agreed to name the new network Collaborative Knowledge Network Indonesia or CKNet-INA. The first members of CKNet-INA are [7]:
Sumatra: Andalas University (UNAND) - Padang
Jakarta: University of Indonesia (UI) - Jakarta
University Bina Nusantara (BINUS) - Jakarta
West Java: Bandung Institute of Technology (ITB) - Bandung
Parahyangan Catholic University (UNPAR) - Bandung
Central Java: Diponegoro University (UNDIP) - Semarang
Yogyakarta: Gajah Mada University (UGM) - Yogyakarta
East Java: Institute of Technology Sepuluh Nopember (ITS) - Surabaya
Merdeka University (UNMER) - Malang
South Sulawesi: Hasanuddin University (UNHAS) – Makassar
As there are many approaches that has been experienced and observed, both within public and private organizations, about how to handle a knowledge network, the CKNet INA development are going to be reviewed from time to time in the following aspects [8]:
• addressing knowledge needs;
• delivering results; and
• managing the network process.
It is shown above that in Indonesia since early 1990s, the water resources sector reforms has continuously been implemented, through capacity development initiatives, which eventually addressing the four domains of enabling environment, organizations, individuals, and cross cutting knowledge management. In Indonesia the water resources capacity development program is known as Water Sector Adjustment Program (WASAP), and it is consistent with principles of integrated water resources management.
Implementation of Basin Water Resources Development and Management
The river basins in Indonesia can be categories into 3 groups:
· River basins in big islands like: Sumatera, Jawa, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, and Irian Jaya
· River basins in medium islands like: Bali, West Nusatenggara Islands, East Nusatenggara Islands, and Maluku islands, which like Bali, the size is more than 5000 sq. km.
· River basins in small islands, i.e. the rest of Indonesian's islands which are not included in both Big and Medium islands.
Further to the above categories, and take into account the socio-economic conditions, intensity of water resources development, and also the conjunctive use of groundwater and surface water; at some places, the whole island should be treated as a unit for its water resources development. The examples to these conditions are Java, Bali, Lombok, and some small islands like Ambon, and Rote.
In line with the new water resources law, the Ministrial Regulation, “PERMEN PU No. 48/PRT/1990” concerning river basin development was changed by Permen PU No. 11A/PRT/M/2006 about criteria and delineation of river basins for water resources development in Indonesia. With the new regulation there are five categories of river basins in Indonesia [9]:
· International Trans-boundary river basins
· Inter Provincial river basins
· Strategic river basins
· Inter District/Municipality river basins
· River Basins within a District/Municipality.
As mention before some of the river basins has been developed since the first multi-purpose dam was built in Indonesia (Jatiluhur dam) and in operation since 1967, while many river basins are still under development. In this case, the river basin stakeholders should know the condition of its river basin and make a planning for continuous improvement by benchmarking to other appropriate river basins. A checklist can be developed in order to know the condition of a river basin, for example:
· Is there an organisation at the basin level?
· What kind of investment has been put in the river basin?
· Is there a network of hydrological data collection?
· Whether a master plan for river basin development has been formulated?
· What kind of activities that stakeholders have been involved?
· Whether a masterplan for river basin management has been agreed by all stake holders?
· Which river basins are taken for benchmarking?
· etc.
As for the Jakarta and its surrounding areas (Jabotabek), the river basins are covering Cisadane-Ciliwung-Citarum river basins. The source of raw water for industrial and domestic water supply are taken from Cisadane river basin in the west and Citarum river basin in the east, as well as Ciliwung basin in the middle. Groundwater source has been heavily used, and it causing the land subsidence and salt water intrusion. Concerning flood damage, beside the high intensity of rainfall, much the flooded area is due to the overflow from Ciliwung River and other 12 small river basins flowing through city of Jakarta. The condition is getting worst if the flood occurs in coincidence with the high tide. Three multi-purpose dams have been built, and no other dam-sites are at the moment feasible for constructions. Other structural flood mitigation approach has been exhaustedly implemented, and the other option left is the non-structural approached, which is in line with current strategy of flood risk management rather than flood prevention. Flood risk management, a concept known in Indonesia, covers a wide range of non-structural measures next to structural measures. The road towards non-structural measures is one of collaboration and coordination between many parties, where communication plays a key role. The communication is for:
Building up the understanding of government’s current flood management and its implementation complexity;
Communities’ awareness that being prepared and taking pre-cautionary measures will substantially reduce flood damage and casualties.
The Communities to become inspired and willing to prepare community-based self-help programs to become better prepared and less vulnerable to floods.
Thus, for Jakarta the capacity development has also reached the cross cutting domain of knowledge management, that is for generating the knowledge, which are needed; and for delivering results (communication). Currently, there is a project called the “Dutch assistance with nonstructural measures Jakarta Flood Management (JFM)”. The JFM Project was started in May 2007. The Netherlands Water Partnership (NWP) took the initiative to bring together Dutch companies for technical assistance. The project is funded by Partners for Water/EVD of the Netherlands [10].
In contrast with Jakarta, river basins in Central Kalimantan are still under developing. In 1996, an ambitious project to anticipate rice shortage was started. The project, as stated in the Presidential Decree Number 82 year 1995 was to develop one million hectares peat land for agriculture areas (see Figure 3 for the project location). The total area of 1.119 million hectares was divided into four working regions, i.e.: Region A covers 227.100 ha, region B covers 161.480 ha, region C covers 568,635 ha, and region D covers 162,278 ha. The rest of the areas, 337,607 ha were reserved for conservation (see Figure 4). Due to the monetary crisis in 1997, and many other reasons the project could not be continue, and causing an ecological disaster. In 2002, the government came up with an Integrated Action Plan to rehabilitate the project area, and slowly the rehabilitation activities have been progressing. In March 2007, a Presidential Instruction was issued (INPRES No.2 tahun 2007) for accelerating the rehabilitation and revitalization of Peat land project area in Central Kalimantan [11].
If in Java, the multi-purpose dams were the driving force for an integrated approach, in Kalimantan the driving force will be the sustainable peat-land development. The Peat land development should be planned carefully due to its global climate change impact. Here the peat-land development should be integrated with the river basin, urban, and rural development. In this case, benchmarking with other river basins in Sumatera is more likely, as well as with the basins in Kalimantan itself.
This is further step to improve your river basin, that is to know the condition of other river basins, especially those that going to be taken as benchmark. In this paper, Singapore is considered as a country, as well as an island, where Integrated Water Resources Management has successfully been implemented.
Singapore, a city state, faces 5 key challenges in water resource management,those are: protecting its water resources, processing safe drinking water in a cost-effective manner, minimizing wastage in water supply system, water conservation, and closing the water loop. Singapore has faced up to these five challenges through a comprehensive integrated water resource management programme; and has achieved 100% access to basic sanitation as well as safe drinking water for the population.
The success of the IWRM programme can be attributed to the efforts of all sectors of the population; from the political will and infrastructure provided by the government, the collective commitment of the community, to the technological expertise and innovation from the private sector.
References
Singapore, a city state, faces 5 key challenges in water resource management,those are: protecting its water resources, processing safe drinking water in a cost-effective manner, minimizing wastage in water supply system, water conservation, and closing the water loop. Singapore has faced up to these five challenges through a comprehensive integrated water resource management programme; and has achieved 100% access to basic sanitation as well as safe drinking water for the population.
The success of the IWRM programme can be attributed to the efforts of all sectors of the population; from the political will and infrastructure provided by the government, the collective commitment of the community, to the technological expertise and innovation from the private sector.
References
[1] TAC Background Papers, No.4 (2000). Integrated Water Resources Management. Global Water Partnership, Stockholm, Sweden
[2] T. Franks, C. Garces-Restepo, and F. Putuhena (2008). Developing Capacity for Agricultural Water Management: Current Practice and Future Directions. The Journal of the International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage, Vol. 57.3: p255 -267.
[3] Indonesian National Committee on Large Dams (1986). Dams in Indonesia. Jakarta, Indonesia.
[4] Directorate General of Water Resources Development (1993). 25 years water resources development in Indonesia (1969 to 1993). Jakarta, Indonesia.
[5] Republic of Indonesia, Department of Public Works, Directorate General of Water Resources Development (1996). Capacity Building Project for the Water Resources Sector: Project Administration Document. Asian Development Bank.
[6] Lembaran Negara Republik Indonesia No. 32 (2004). Undang Undang Republik Indonesia Nomor 7 tahun 2004 tentang Sumber Daya Air. Jakarta, Indonesia.
[7] Ferry J. Putuhena and J.T.L. Yap (2005). A Collaborative knowledge network as an instrument for Capacity Development in Indonesia. Workshop Proceedings on Design and Implementation of Capacity Development Strategies p17 - 25. Beijing, China.
[8] Carel Keuls (2008). Knowledge Network Development in Water Resources and Irrigation Management: The case of CKnet – INA in Indonesia. The Journal of the International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage, Vol. 57.3: p341 – 353.
[9] http://sda.pu.go.id/hukum visit August 19,2008
[10] Suan Tie Pwa and Evelyn G. Keetelaaar (2007). Dutch assistance with non-structural measures Jakarta Flood Management: Executive Summary. Jakarta Flood Team, Jakarta, Indonesia
[11] Direktorat Jenderal Sumber Daya Air (2008). Profil Balai Wilayah Sungai Kalimantan II. Jakarta, Indonesia.
[12] http://www.unep.org/GC/GCSS-VIII/Singapore.IWRM.pdf visit: August 19, 2008.
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